Letting Clients Know You Are Available Translator
The Translator and his Client:
Factoring external determinations into the translational activity
by Dr. Iheanacho A. AkakuruDepartment of Foreign Languages and Literatures
Academy of Port Harcourt, Rivers State (Nigeria)
1.1: Introduction
ccording to Antar Southward. Abdellah(2002:i)one, translation is a vital social activeness which "enables man beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the different tongues used." Though we cannot deny the value of this assertion, information technology nonetheless obscures the fact that, depending on whether we are talking about the translator'due south viewpoint or his customer's/translation commissioner's, translation may well mean two different things. In issue, in his book, Becoming a Translatortwo, Douglas Robinson proposes a stardom between the "internal" and "external" viewpoints of translation. The 'internal viewpoint' is the perspective of the translator who sees his activity as a process (i.e. a series of hierarchical steps from source text/ST to target text/TT), while the 'external viewpoint' is that of the Client/Translation Commissioner for whom translation is just the end product.
"Fidelity" for the customer may be a pragmatic, rather than an upstanding, concept.
Indeed, as Akakuru (2005) points out in "Abstracting Significant Factors in a feasible Translator-training program"5, the translator's main activeness consists of rendering a text in 1 language (source linguistic communication/source text: SL/ST) into an equivalent text in a 2nd linguistic communication (target linguistic communication/Target text: TL/TT) which as well achieves the equivalent pragmatic upshot. Still, this rendition is non ever a literal like shooting fish in a barrel-to-practise exercise involving just grammars across languages, but oftentimes turns out to exist a pondered , circuitous, intelligent action requiring multi-layered knowledge. This knowledge would imply not only the ability to make linguistic and businesslike decisions, but also deontological/ethical ones.
A translator who is hired to translate a document receives specific instructions from his client. It may be couched in the usual terms: "Delight, get this paper in French translated into English or Igbo or Izon or Yoruba, etc. Sometimes, the instructions may take the form of the casual: "Exercise me a gist of this piece" or "Do me a summary of what this text says in English." The instructions may even be in the more pointed: "I would like to know what this author/scientist/announcer, etc says on A,B,C or his findings." The nature of the 'lodge,' the specifics of the client'due south/commissioner's brief, and the consensual time-frame within which the work is to be done, determine its pecuniary value. This is and then considering, generally, the more the text is mutually perceived every bit difficult and the the more than the quality of translation sought after is a disquisitional gene, the more the customer may have to pay for the job.
In fact, what the client is oft prepared to pay depends really on a circuitous number of factors which include: how reputable/competent he considers the translator; what the translation he is commissioning is likely to yield him in business or research; how far he appreciates the level of difficulty of what is to be done (text type, text length)vi, for whom the translation may also exist intended other than the translation commissioner, the urgency of the work, the cost of living in the item city where the translator resides, the professional status of the client, his personal relationship with the translator and, in our own setting, whether the client considers translation equally a profession or merely equally a secondary skill.7
But the disquisitional question for the professional translator vis-à-vis his client remains—and this is the underlying and defining impetus that ensures the success of his enterprise—what he must prioritize to achieve a text that would satisfy the expectations of the Translation Commissioner/client. In other words, the translator is concerned with hypothesizing, i.e. projecting mentally and creatively, the real-life paradigms by which the quality of his work would exist judged by the wo/man who would pay for it. And this is an arduous task that hinges on the existent competence of the translator: that is, his/her power to analyze semantic fields, syntactic structures, cultural difference, sociology and psychology of the reader (i.e. hypothetical reader/client response)viii.
We will attempt, in this paper, to run into to what extent the class and texture of a translation are determined by the non-translator/customer. To this end, we shall translate a source text in French, producing versions in English on the strict orders of the "human/woman who pays." This volition enable us to see whether there are implications for the eventual target text both in quantitative and qualitative terms.
1.ii: Understanding How the Client views Translation
For the customer who pays for a translation to be washed, a number of factors weigh significantly on his calibration of priorities. These include, readability (TT must be such that reading is easy and comprehension facilitated), accuracy (TT must reconstruct the message and equivalent style of ST with the TT reader in mind) and timeliness (the translator must keep to deadlines). The translation Commissioner just wants a text translated: it may well be to update data for his business, for a research in progress or to improve the quality of his general culture.
For the man of affairs, the requirements may cover a wide range of information. This information may be on the latest electric/electronic habitation appliances or equipment made in France (emphasising, say, their performance and durability/ruggedness for the torrid zone); it may be a text on opportunities for business concern partners in a French-speaking country (distributors, suppliers of dwelling house-made goods, practical preparation/workshops, etc). Translation for inquiry may be technical-scientific, technical-non scientific or even overtly literary. In some cases, the target text may take to exist written in specialized/non specialized annals, while for the customer who pays for a text in a foreign language be translated for him for his personal use (for pleasance), his original text may exist in areas as varied equally astrology, history, arts, computing, literature, etc
The diversity of the client'southward instructions puts different pressures on the translator. On the one mitt, the client is not bothered about the intricacies/ niceties of linguistic communication and the translator is spared the stress of having to contend with literariness involving, mayhap, considerations of cultural modes of expression that have to be concretized and transposed accordingly. On the other hand, particularly with translating for research, the order is for a annals-sensitive target text which is likewise conscious of mathematical and scientific accuracy. In the specific instance of scientific translation, details of chemical reactions, temperature, colour, details on dosage, complex stratified/procedural information on the working of a machine, etc are and then critical that mistakes or approximations or inaccuracies may be life-threatening9.
The translator knows that the terms of each assignment elicit from him/her a different disposition, a different human relationship with language and the world. In some texts (scientific and technical ones), he has to battle with the cognitive experience and terminology implicit in the specific field of the source text. In others (literary and other cultural texts), he has to pay attention not only to pregnant only also to verbal music, to cultural modes of linguistic behavior, to idiolects and other linguistic obsessions of an author. Each of these considerations determines the peculiar details of the source text in the target text in the course of translation: what faculties are activated, what knowledge would be called into play, what supplementary terminological and cognitive enquiry must be undertaken by the translator to ameliorate perceived inadequacies in his knowledge or repertoire.
Yet, for the wo/man who pays for a translation, the desired production is just the translated text that results from translating, not the typological musings that influence subtle choices of words or expressions, not the hierarchical steps of a process as can be gleaned from translation models like those of Nida and Taber, Catford, Ladmiral, Gile, Catherine Barnwell, Douglas Robinson, Peter Newmark, Ukoyen, Simpson, Flamand, etc.10.
In other words, for the paying client, the view of translation, equally Robinson Douglas correctly points out, is "external": he has paid for a product non for a procedure. Similar a man who pays for a apparel to exist fabricated for his girl within a mutually agreed time-frame: all that matters to him is to arrive at the tailor'due south on the agreed date and time to collect the apparel, no more no less.
Only there lies the problem. For, whereas the translator sees his activity from the inside (as internal), requiring him to understand the source text, its grammar (its tense profile), its thematic or data structure, its destination and attendant style, the client, on his role, merely sees translation from the outside (as external). Simply put, the monolingual client is indifferent to the process; he is concerned with the terminate-product and this has far-reaching furnishings on the form, texture and tonality of the target text.
1.3: Factoring the Customer'southward Brief into the translation projection.
Practicing translators know that they produce dissimilar kinds of target texts depending on the instructions they receive. In the course of ane of my translation classes, we experimented on the 'client factor' in translation with an original text in French. By placing myself in the position of the client, I gave 5 different instructions to different groups of students in the aforementioned class. Each group was to work on the aforementioned French source text (ST) simply from the perspective of i of the instructions which included, a literal or direct translation, a communicative or fluent translation, a commentary, an adaptation, and a gist or summary. The results were equally startling as they were instructive for we had, indeed, arrived at five unlike target texts in English. Below is the rather colloquial source text in French (ST) from which the English versions were to be derived:
"Le Nigeria, c'est tout à la fois: c'est tous les Nigerians. Ce n'est pas le nord, le Nigeria! Ce n'est pas le sud, le Nigeria! Naturellement, les Nigerians, appartiennent à des groupes ethniques. Il y a l'éternelle lutte entre des gens qui veulent les réformes et d'autres qui adorent le statu quo. On sait que certains veulent que les choses changent, qu'il y ait plus de justice, plus d'égalité, plus d'équité; d'autres insistent que les choses doivent rester inchangées, que tout va bien dans les meilleurs des mondes et que les protagonistes du changement sont des fauteurs de trouble!"
A rapid mapping/parsing of the source text would enable usa to make a number of observations. The commencement is the gallicist conventional pre-positioning of the definite article "le" before nouns contrary to what is authorized in English11. We too observe obsessive use of "ce" cataphorically equally in "ce n'est pas le nord, le Nigeria" ( the pronoun "ce" precedes its ancestor 'le Nigeria'). This repetitive utilise of "ce" (the demonstrative: this) and 'on' (the impersonal pronoun: one) in the ST in French, marks the source text for colloquialness. The students were allowed to become home with their assignment armed with these preliminary observations and after the details of the instructions of the customer had been explained to them. The specific instructions by the client to each of the v groups of students are unsaid in the titles, in brackets, that precede the target texts below:
TT1 (Literalism/word-for-give-and-take)
Nigeria, information technology is all at once : it is all the Nigerians. It is non the North, the Nigeria! It is not the South, the Nigeria! Naturally, the Nigerians belong to some ethnic groups. In that location is the eternal struggle between some people Who want reforms and others who adore the status quo. One knows that certain people desire that the things alter, that there be more of justice, more of equality, more of equity; others insist that the things should remain unchanged, that all is going well in the all-time of worlds and that the protagonists of alter are fomenters of trouble!
TT2 (Communicative/Fluent)
Nigeria belongs to all Nigerians.It cannot be viewed as
North or South, it must be seen as one entity. Naturally,
every Nigerian belongs to an ethnic group. There is
the unending struggle betwixt those who desire
reforms and others who are content with the status quo .
We know that some Nigerians want change, they ask for
more justice, more than equality, more than disinterestedness. Others insist
that things should remain the way they are and that
they couldn't be ameliorate . For these people, those who
want things to modify are trouble makers.
TT3 (Commentary)
Nigeria refers to all Nigerians. It would be wrong to see Nigeria every bit North and South considering that would be divisive and unpatriotic . Similar other peoples of the world, Nigerians belong to diverse indigenous groups merely that does not justify an ethnic vision of Nigeria . What is really at play and which lazy people fail to see is the struggle between those who want change and greater autonomous reforms and those who want to continue to exploit their ain people on the basis of nondescript systems .For the conservatives who are afraid that their privileges would evaporate in one case the democratic infinite is liberalised and the common man is empowered, those who clamour for change are rabid radicals and trouble-makers!
TT4 (Adaptation)
Nigeria is for all of us. When yous hear North and Due south, Y'all know that politicians desire to split up us. Whether you lot are Igbo , Yoruba , Hausa or Izon , we are all members of the aforementioned family unit . Some people who are enjoying do not want the state to be amend. They are the people who are calling the expert Nigerians problem-makers
TT5 (Summary/gist).
Nigeria is 1 entity , not the Northward or South taken separately. Part of the problem with Nigerians is that they mistake the struggle for power between Progressives and Conservatives for rivalry between the ethnic groups.
or
Nigeria is 1 land, not North or South. The problem is with those who do not want things to be better. They introduce ethnic politics to comprehend upward their greed .
It is evident that in all these versions, the semantic core of the source text (or what Popovic refers to as the "invariant core')12 has remained the same but different superficial target texts have been generated. It would exist instructive to look at the different versions in English to detect that, indeed, nosotros by no way accept one version for the other. This is because the change of focus, the differences in the linguistic options of item versions, are not corrective but pragmatic choices that are contingent on the client'due south cursory and the consistent desire by the translator to achieve clear-cut chatty ends.
1.4: Deconstructing the Dynamics of Target Text Production
A close look at these target-language (English) versions of the original
reveal the following:
TT1: Literal translation. In literal translation, the source text(ST) is over-bearing and ascendant and the translator tends to judge the validity of forms in his target text from the signal of view of the source language and culture, equally if all languages behave in the aforementioned fashion. Consequently, TTI has merely followed the ST discussion-for-word equally nosotros can see from the post-obit examples which sound unnatural in English:
(i) Nigeria, it is all at once: English words have only been
substituted for the original French while maintaining the same
syntactic structures.
(ii) It is not the N, Nigeria: This construction which places the
antecedent after its pronoun in the "ce/c'est" construction is common and right in French even though it marks the sequence for colloquialness. In English, the above sequence infringes on the norm. Persistent cataphoric constructions are not essential to English language syntax. Even though, it may marker the forms stylistically, it remains conflicting to the genius of English. Compare: Nigeria is not but the Due north, information technology is not just the S which flows.
(3) One knows that certain people desire the things to change: '1'(impersonal pronoun) which is common and part of the French genius is non the norm in English language fifty-fifty though it has a much reduced currency. On the other hand, English language would say "things" (in a generic sense) rather than 'the things' which is incorrect usage in this item context. This incorrect use would thus betray the not-English origins of this TT or mark the text in which information technology appears as a translation.
What the above examples bear witness is that, in the literal translation above, ST linguistic season pervades the translation: ST syntactic structures, ST graphical norms, ST punctuation, etc. This intrusion of the ST into the TT, which is often referred to as "literalism" or word-for-word, makes the translation sound and look unnatural. This unnaturalness signals to the discerning reader that he is face to confront with a translation of an absent original.
TT2: Communicative translation recaptures the message of the original but re-expresses it freely and communicatively and so much so that it does non feel like a text non originally written in English. For case, goose egg tin be more natural than "Nigeria belongs to all Nigerians .... Naturally, every Nigerian belongs to an indigenous group " In this version, the stylistic dominants of the ST are non allowed to inspire formal/prosodic decisions in the TT. In this regard, " Nosotros know that some Nigerians want change, they inquire for more justice (not ' more of justice' as in the literal translation). The translation flows naturally as a specimen of a standard text in the target language and culture.
TT3: Commentary makes "explicit" what is "implicit" in the ST often with more than elaborate explanations, extrapolations, analogies. For example, the post-obit highlighted and italicized sequences are not in the ST but are axiological inventions of the translator:
"Nigeria refers to all Nigerians. Information technology would exist incorrect to encounter Nigeria every bit North and South because that would exist divisive and unpatriotic . Like other peoples of the world, Nigerians vest to diverse ethnic groups but that does not justify an ethnic vision of Nigeria . What is really at play and what lazy people fail to see is the struggle betwixt those who want change and greater democratic reforms and those who want to keep to exploit their own people on the footing of nondescript systems. For the conservatives, who are agape that their privileges would evaporate once the democratic space is liberalized and the common man is empowered, those who clamor for change are rabid radicals and trouble-makers " ...."
The active involvement of the reader'south cultural and intellectual groundwork in the re-creation of meaning—which the strategy of the "implicit" sets in movement—is destroyed and the suspense and force of the ST is lost to a loose and verbose prosaic way. This is because at that place are extrapolations so much extraneous and polemical material. This version is clearer and more pedagogical even though it has a college degree of emotivity than the ST. This TT goes beyond the communicative arroyo which Ledererxiii canonizes and takes on the trappings of a "commentary"
TT4 (Adaptation) adjusts the language of the original to suit a less sophisticated readership. Note the commonplace " Nigeria is for all of us " instead of the "Nigeria refers to...." in the commentary version above. The conative opinion of this version is more evident. This explains why the impersonal tone of the ST " One knows that..." becomes " You know that.... (we, us, you lot, etc) and these personal pronouns increment intimacy with the reader, who is, thus, taken into conviction. The vernacular tone enhances reader-identification with the problem raised in the original. The target text is re-contextualized in line with the target reader and the reference to localizable ethnic groups( Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa, Izon) gives the target text(TT) a more personal and conversational flavor equally contra-distinct from the source text that sounds impersonal.
TT5: Gist or summary is a condensed/abridged form of the ST. It overemphasizes the cerebral content at the expense of the literary or stylistic features of the ST. It does not go out out any of the points of the original but information technology does not back-trail the facts with a corresponding "clothing": the skeleton has no flesh and what we accept is a gist or a summary of the source-text (ST).
Information technology is axiomatic that, arising from the empirical analyses of the translated versions above, the question may arise as to whether in some of these versions the source text (ST) is not vitiated. This is particularly critical because it bothers on the reliability and the responsibility 14 of the translated text (TT).
What is significant, however, as we have observed in the five different versions in English, is the merits that the original message has remained the aforementioned even though the different instructions from the client have generated five different target texts in English and this number could exist more depending on the number of clients and the nature of their briefs.
1.5: Conclusion
In spite of the conscious analysis of the five versions higher up, the question may still remain whether in whatsoever of them the source text(ST) has been vitiated. This is particularly critical because it borders on reliability of the translated text(TT) which is, itself, a role of the client's instructions. For, as Christian Nord reminds us:
"The initiator(customer) starts the process of inter-cultural advice considering he wants a particular communicative instrument: the target text"fifteen
Sometimes, the client's instructions define reliability to hateful that the translation should reproduce the exact nature of the source text, meticulously rendering details of every aspect of the source text that is relevant for the client's activity. Sometimes, reliability may simply signal to summarizing certain paragraphs of bottom importance while painstakingly doing close readings of other paragraphs of fundamental importance.
It is possible to generate other slightly different versions nether the same subheadings. We could even arrive at farthermost options if we have instructions to produce an accommodation of the ST in English for children or, in line with "Skopos Theory"sixteen, to produce a totally estranged TT in English language with only pragmatic links with the ST. The versions so produced would be as valid as others equally long every bit the purpose of the source text is maintained in the translations.
What this really points to is that 'allegiance' for the client may be a businesslike, rather than an ethical, concept. The critical factor may well be that the instructions are understood in terms of the language level and usage the translator must maintain, the cultural adaptation/transpositions to event, and the selective details and general atmosphere "to carry across" into the target text.
It is problematic for practitioners and theorists to decree arbitrarily "validity scales" for one or the other version without relating these to the client. After all, as we accept seen in the versions above, validity cannot exist an abstract, neutral term. For, as long equally the translator has to be paid for his piece of work, he cannot on his own determine what should be delivered to his client. The determination to produce whatever of these versions must be the direct result of his client's instructions but may besides be the result of the translator's perception of the target readership and the other uses to which his translation may exist put.
Simply what should a professional translator do if due south/he is paid to transgress the original text, i.east. if the translation Commissioner insists that the translator s/he pays must distort/vitiate the integrity of the source text through translation and consequently undermine the original ideological project of the ST author? In such extreme cases, s/he may have no other feasible selection just to withdraw his/her services, unless the lure of the money involved and his low ethical standards encourage him/her to betray the original text and sacrifice the translator'due south professional deontology.
This is why the translator must weigh carefully the total briefing for the job southward/he is being offered. S/he must state his terms and his/her professional person stand every bit conspicuously as his tariffs. He must not mince words and must speak frankly. Once southward/he has accepted a task, he cannot afford to permit his client downwards. For, information technology would be irresponsible for a translator non to defend a position that he has accepted as professionally tenable and pragmatically moral with regard to his client'due south instructions and for which he has signed a contract of translation.
Notes and References
i Antar South. Abdellah(2002) "What every Novice translator should know" in Translation Journal Vol. 6, Number iii, http://accurapid.com/periodical/21novice.htm, p 1.
2 Douglas, Robinson(1997) Becoming a Translator: An Accelerated Course (London: Routledge. p. 6.
three Quoted by Douglas, Robinson(1997)Becoming a Translator, p.6. Nosotros accept fabricated exhaustive utilize of some of the ideas expressed past this writer.
iv Anthony Pym(1993)Epistemological Problems in Translation and Its teaching: A seminar for Thinking Students. Calaceite(Teruel), Kingdom of spain: Caminade, pp 131, 149-150.
five Iheanacho A. Akakuru(2005)"Abstracting Significant Factors in a viable Translator-Training Prorogramme" in Trends in the study of Language and Linguistics in Nigeria,pp.207-217 (Festschrift for Professor Phillip Akujuobi Nwachukwu), Ozo-Mekuri Ndimele(ed)Port Harcourt: Linguistics Association/Orbit Publications and EmhaiPress).
6 The level of difficulty/stress quotient of a particular source text arises not only from text-type merely also from text-length.Generally, text-length is a critical gene in pricing/tariffication. A long text implies longer hours of translation and this should be paid for. If, in addition, the text-blazon (which has to do with diction, formal/prosodic and graphical characteristics associated with genres/texts in a language) also requires considerable terminological inquiry, the tariff per page is significantly higher.
vii Until recently, even in our universities, translating was not considered a special skill involving specialized training or exercise. So strong was this received idea that colleagues casually requested you to translate long texts without any reference to remuneration.
8 Reader socio-educational level, skopos of the ST, formal resource exploited in the source text and the attendant cultural adjustments that these occasion in the translated text, are aspects of the translator'south concerns. Fidelity to the ST is not only semantic. This is what Enani(1997) reminds us when he affirms that "Translation is a modernistic science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology and folklore. Quoted by Antar Due south. Abdellah Op. Cit.
9 Scientists know what results you get when yous instruct students in a higher laboratory to "add drops of water into a jar containing Sulfuric Acrid" rather than "add drops of sulfuric acid into a jar containing water." In the one-time case, the student may probably have part of his tender face charred by the sudden upsurge of heat; in the latter, the temperature ascent is gentle' The cases of over-dosage in the intake of drugs resulting from mistranslations have been fatal. Scientific translation is critical in industries, research centers, pharmacies, etc.,
10 Translation is a problem-solving activity involving reading/analysis and comprehension equally the first stage. This is where strategic decisions and decisions of detail are taken. The translator becomes enlightened of the text-blazon and texture and assesses what, in the source text, he must consider as essential to his target text and what is only secondary or peripheral detail. This decision is compounded past the customer's instructions with its ideological, pragmatic, cultural and linguistic implications.
11 The definite article in French has a regime that is radically unlike from its utilize in English except in defining sure nouns. It is instructive tonote the following examples which are indicative of the differences:
| 50'eau (the water) | water |
| La femme (the woman) | woman |
| La vie (the life) | life |
12 Susan Bassnett-McGuire(1988: First published 1980)Translation Studies London and New York: Routledge
13 See: Seleskovitch, Danica and Lederer, Marianne(1993) Interpréter pour Traduire. Paris: Didier Erudition
fourteen A reliable translation is one that can be used by the client, one that keeps to the terms of the brief. A responsible translation is one that respects the critical features of the source text while conforming to the constraints of the target linguistic communication and culture.
15 Christiane Nord(1991) Text Analysis in Translation: Theory Methodology and Didactic application of a Model for Translation- Oriented Text Analysis, p.8 (Translated from her earlier book: Textanalyse und uberseten 1988)
16 Skopos Theory: see Vermeer, Hans(1978, 1989a) "Skopos und Translation"- Saustrag Heildelbeg: Institute fur uber. Translated into English and reproduced equally "Skopos and Commission" in Translation activity- Andrew Chesterman, in Chesterman(ed.)pp.173-187. Skopos(derived from Greek) is a technical word that defines "purpose" of a translation. This theory, founded by Hans Vermeer, draws inspiration from communication theory, action theory, text linguistics and text theory equally well as reception theories in literary studies(Come across: Iser, 1978).views translation, not as a process of transcoding but as a specific form of human action. The start thing here is to ascertain the purpose earlier translating: this is a prospective attitude as against the retrospective action adopted in theories which focus on prescriptions derived from the source text(equivalence, fidelity, etc, with ST equally paradigm).
Select Bibliography
Abdellah, Antar S. (2002). "What Every Novice Translator should know" in Translation Periodical, Volume 6, Number 3 http://accurapid.com/periodical/21novice.htm.
Aire, Victor (2002) "Achebe in translation: An Evaluation of the French versions of Things Fall Apart and A Man of the People" in Selected Essays and Reviews on African Literature and Criticism. Jos: St Stephen Inc Bookhouse,
Akakuru, Iheancho A (2005) "Abstracting Meaning Factors in feasible Translator-preparation Programme" in Trends in the Study of Language and Linguistics in Nigeria. Festschrift for Professor Phillip Akujuobi Nwachukwu. Ozo-Mekuri Ndimele(ed.) Port Harcourt: Linguistics Association of Nigeria/Orbit Publications and Emhai Press,
Akakuru, Iheanacho, A, and Chima, Dominic, C (2006) "Reflexions sur la litterature africaine et sa traduction" in Translation Journal Vol. 10, No. 3, July. http://accurapid.com/journal/37lit.htm.
Bassnett-McGuire, Susan (1988: First published in 1980). Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge.
Hervey, Sandor and Higgins, Ian (1992). Thinking Translation: A Form in Translation Method: French to English. London and New York: Routledge.
Newmark, Peter (1988) A Textbook of Translation. London and New York: Phoenix ELT.
Nida, Eugene and Taber, Charles (1969) The Theory and Exercise of Translation. Leiden: East.J. Mill.
Nord Christiane (1991) Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Pym, Anthony (1993) Epistemological Problems in Translation and its Pedagogy: A Seminar for Thinking Students. Calaceite (Teruel), Spain: Caminade.
Robinson, Douglas (1997) Becoming a translator: An Accelerated Class. London: Routledge.
Seleskovitch, Danica and Lederer, Marianne (1993) Interpreter pour Traduire. Paris: Didier Erudition.
Source: https://translationjournal.net/journal/52client.htm
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